Supply Chain Management and Modern Technologies

Introduction The requirements of the marketplace when conducting supply chain management is largely dependent on whether an organisation is in need of pursuing either the lean or agile paradigms. The two supply chain parameters are distinctively different. For instance, in terms of the market winner, the agile paradigm is tagged on availability while the lean one is pegged on cost.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Supply Chain Management and Modern Technologies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In other words, nimbleness in a market that is overly sensitive works well in an agile supply chain contrary to the lean supply chain where waste definition is the clear cut line.  Another important parameter in supply chain management is the proper location of decoupling points. This is imperative bearing in mind that there is need to engineer a hybrid supply chain where both materials and information can flow smoothly f orm the point of production to consumption. When the latter is effectively implemented, it will enhance positive outcome associated with both types of supply chain. For example, efficiency will be visible in a lean system while the agile supply chain will encourage an effective supply downstream. There are quite a number of supply chain management technologies that have been adopted in the contemporary business spheres. One such technology is the use of RFID to track down materials or products from the point of production or sale to the end user. The only loophole in the application of RFID in supply chain management seems to be emanating from outside such as lack of specified standards, security and privacy considerations, false promises as well as marketing problems. This business report offers a succinct critique of Naylor et al article on the application of lean and agile (leagile) supply chain management. Additionally, the paper discusses how RFID and other modern supply chain technologies such as e-commerce, CPER and VMI can be used to mitigate against the bull-whip effect in supply chain performance. Critique / Literature Review Perhaps, it is pertinent to begin this literature review and critique by defining each of the supply chain paradigms. Although Naylor et al (1999) attempts to define agility simply as supply chain management processes that enhance effectiveness and performance in organizations, it is vital to emphasize that business enterprises that pursue this kind of supply have much more to encounter and implement.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) is indeed the origin of this concept. Sometimes back, manufacturing flexibility was thought to be only possible through automation. This idea did not last for long since it was later extended to incorporate other important factors in business that wou ld influence rapid changes through product mix or volume. Hence, the concept of agility in supply chain management has taken a sharp turn especially in regard to its composition and functionality. Hence, Naylor et al (1999) ought to have incorporated all the supply chain elements that affect the agile paradigm. While the authors have thinly differentiated agility and leanness in supply chain management, the two paradigms have a visible difference both in terms of application and effect in supply chain management. When referring to leanness, a supply chain management focuses more to do with producing more using fewer resources. In fact, Naylor et al (1999) reiterate that the â€Å"just-in-time† approach or zero inventories is usually associated with leanness especially in manufacturing. Although the latter terms are precise to use, a more relevant philosophy to use is Minimum Reasonable Inventory (MRI) since it is rather practical bearing in mind that â€Å"leanness† re fers to the most minimal use of available resources to produce more. On the other hand, it is quite impossible to separate the two paradigms, not to mention the fact that the agile supply chain is very common in business enterprises that have adopted lean manufacturing. This is paradoxical having highlighted the outstanding difference between the two supply chain tools. The point at which lean manufacturing starts can be practically traced by the Toyota Production System (TPS). (Heinrich, 2005). This company largely targeted at eliminating and reducing waste in its manufacturing portfolio as one way of boosting production and hence manufacturing in its manufacturing portfolio.  It is highly likely that the article by Naylor et al (1999) has laid much emphasis on the positive returns of lean thinking to factory production. In any case, it is worth to note that manufacturing practices among several business organizations across the globe have been improved due to the lessons gained from TPS guidelines. Thus, restricting the benefits to factories per se may be myopic, so to speak. In connection to this, it is possible to encounter a situation whereby less working hours is spent against higher output in the production and supply of vehicles in a factory whereas the stock of finished vehicles may take up until three months to clear in terms of sale. Again, this is another paradox in the supply chain management when deliberating on both lean and agile paradigms at the same time. Therefore, leanness, as much as it is unique from agility, can still be integrated in a scenario whereby an organization wants to attain both efficiency and effectiveness simultaneously.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Supply Chain Management and Modern Technologies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The strategy used in supply chin and of course manufacturing should be that which fall between market winners and market qualifiers (Heinrich, 2005). The two concepts are well covered by Naylor et al (1999). In other descriptions, the two parameters have also been highlighted as order qualifiers and order winners. In retrospect, any organization entering a manufacturing field should deliberate on the requisite baselines to compete favourable in an open market economy as it is the case with the current effect brought about by globalization. These prior considerations are referred to as order qualifiers. On the other hand, gaining market strength and equitable share of the market demands certain unique flexibilities also referred to as order winners. Supposedly, the most appropriate manufacturing strategy can only be met when both the order winners and order qualifiers is brought into light. Unfortunately, Naylor et al (1999) does not explicitly underscore the two concepts that would prepare a ground for vibrant supply chain management. In real sense, companies do not compete; rather, it is the supply c hains. Thus, it is quite tricky to elude the connection between agile and lean as well as winners and qualifiers. In a more simplistic term, the lean supply chain will carry the day if the element of cost is factored in the process. However, service value coupled with customer satisfaction is of critical importance when discussing agile paradigm. At this point, there is a lot of concurrence with the article by Naylor et al (1999).  In appendix I, the two paradigms have been illustrated in terms of their terse differences. Such a â€Å"compare and approach† approach is necessary in creating a clear cut difference as well as similarity between the supply chain paradigms (see appendix II). Product quality level is an equal requirement in both lean and agile supply chain contrary to what Naylor et al (1999) propose. Whilst leanness is overly concerned with reducing or alleviating the level of waste in course of supply, the quality of either goods or services produced cannot be compromised. This also applies to lead-times especially between the times when a client places an order and when the delivery is finally effected. Agility too, demands that the total lead time be lowered to what may be referred to as the â€Å"irreducible minimum†. The only challenge when this requirement has to be applied in an agile supply chain is the difficulty in forecasting and the high level of volatile associated with predicting the total lead-time. Naylor et al (1999) also confirm that marketplace demand will be cumbersome to exploit if the end-to-end lead-time is extremely long and possibly wasteful in the supply process. The vertical distribution channel has been the supply chain art of Dell for long. It solely distributes its products. Through the use of internet or telephone, customers are able to start off the process of buying. Three modes of selling are applicable at Dell namely keyboard-to-server, ear-to-ear and face-to-face (Dell Fedman, 1999).Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The lead-time is usually specified by the company representative although in practice, it takes a much shorter time to deliver the product than earlier specified in the inquiry. Computers at Dell are built according to customer’s specifications.  In order to satisfy the orders placed by customers, the company makes use of an agile supply chain paradigm. Additionally, the inventory is not finished while the entire business platform takes the form of a direct model. The component inventory is also kept to the lowest level possible as one way of beating the competition in terms of prices. Indeed, this is a clear cut example on how both the lean and agile supply chains can be incorporated in an organization in order to simultaneously boost efficiency and effectiveness. The lean approach at Dell is also evident when the company applies vertical integration in its supply chain management (Heinrich, 2005). Subsequently, the company has facilitated cost reduction as a way of reduci ng wastes. For instance, an agile supplier has been mandated to build relatively standard monitors. As such, the company may require as much as 9,547 pieces of monitors today from its agile supplier while in few days time, demand as low as 760. RFID for Supply Chain Performance Improvements Evolution, both socially and economically, is a daily experience that is encountered both at the individual and societal level. One of the visible fronts in evolution is the advances made in technology and especially in supply chain management. Technological sophistication has continually improved consumer experience not to mention the mammoth benefits to suppliers and manufacturers. In particular, the use of the Radio Frequency Identification Devices (RFID) has created real world awareness in the managing supply chain. This technology is used to track down the design or unique product characteristics right from the point of production throughout the supply chain. Additionally, RFID is capable of either actively or passively transmitting the product information regardless of space and time. Indeed, the technology has been used to minimize theft of goods alongside avoiding improper shipment sizes. By using RFID technology, it is possible to ensure that the products will arrive at their point of destination with minimum hitch in addition to giving a better forecast especially of the delivery time to consumers. An organization can also use this device for impose restrictions to entering certain points within a building. It can also be useful in assessing the exit and entry times for employees.  Modern business indeed requires the implementation of RFID technology and especially in regard to improving product awareness throughout the supply chain management. When variability in the demand order are overly increased or amplified as they progress through the chain of supply, it results into the bullwhip effect (Heinrich, 2005). In actual practice, the bullwhip effect is common when vital information is distorted as the supply chain is distorted. Worse still, such distortion is also a major cause of supply chain inefficiencies and failure experienced in some establishments. When companies thoroughly evaluate, assess and comprehend the latent causes of bullwhip effect, they can effectively counteract this scenario. To this end, can RFID technologies assist in reducing the bullwhip effect in any way? Currently, industry leaders are in the forefront of implementing strategies that are innovative in nature such as the use of RFID tracking tool to facilitate smooth and unrestricted flow of information. This has been covered under the integration of new information systems (Heinrich, 2005). Moreover, new measurement and incentive systems in addition to giving a better definition to organizational relationship have been applied to counter the bullwhip effect.  In respect to new information systems, RFID has played an integral role in supply chain management. Th e RFID passive tags contain vital information of the product. As part and parcel of reducing the bullwhip effect in its supply chain, Dell Inc. has embraced the use of RFID technology. Today, the company stands out as one of the well established computer and electronics manufacturer worldwide (Dell Fedman, 1999). The six manufacturing plants of the company employ over 50,000 employees spread across different locations in the world. As already mentioned, the company makes use of the idea on supply and demand depending on the orders placed by customers to drive sales. As the chairman and founder of Dell, Michael Dell confessed, the ability to obtain real-time data courtesy of RFID technology has indeed improved the working efficiency of the company in addition to boosting revenue growth of the company (Heinrich, 2005). Currently, the company is fast on plans to decommission the old techniques that have been used in its supply chain for long and embrace better RFID technologies that h ave proved to be both effective and efficient in manufacturing and service delivery portfolios. In practice, the RFID technology being used at Dell has enabled customers to keep a close vigil of their purchases and how everything is progress from the assembly time, shipment and eventually to delivery. In all of these processes, human beings are minimally involved thereby reducing the possible additional workforce that the company would require as part of customer support.  Realistically speaking, such an arrangement would significantly reduce or even completely eliminate the bullwhip effect. Furthermore, congestion in warehouses has been a thing of the past bearing in mind that Dell has fully engaged itself in the manufacture of most computer hardware and software being sold. The real world awareness created by RFID technology has greatly improved the supply chain management logistics leading to extreme success of the company.  The United States Department of Defence is also kee n in the implementation of RFID technologies especially in the handing and tracking down of its ammunitions, weapons and military rations. The department has realized that less time is spent when RFID is used as compared to the ordinary means of inventory processing. The maintenance of material, asset visibility, items management as well as improvement in data quality has been necessitated with the use of the RFID technology. Using RFID to Complement Existing Technologies Concepts There are quite a number of supply chain technologies. However, the use of RFID can indeed boost the viability of other technologies and concepts being used in supply chain management. For instance, supply chain management is currently employing E-commerce, Decentralized Software Service Protocol (DSSP), Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), internet, Vendor Managed Inventory (VMI) and Customer Premise Equipment (CPE). The lean and agile paradigms in supply chain are also important parameters when integratin g RFID technology since the latter is one of the success factors in supply chain IT. For example, the process of gathering information from the manufacturing to the delivery point requires a more real time data analysis and transmission (Attaran, 2007). This is in effect similar to the case scenario on how E-commerce is carried out at Dell inc. the use of RFID at this point is vital since all the parties engage in the transaction will be visible enough in the entire supply chain process. Additionally, RFID will improve E-commerce undertakings in the sense that it will be possible to expedite the assessment of orders by retailers as well as monitor possible delays.  Secondly, E-commerce that has integrated the use of RFID technologies will be able to put in place a standardization process that will be able to identify products across various industries and companies. A single contact point can be used to access data in the system since there is need for uniformity of the much neede d information by consumers. When old forms of technologies such as telephones are used, there can be slight differences in the information passed verbally and the actual specifications of the product being purchased. A robust RFID structure in internet use will also facilitate quick analysis of system data as well as improve planning that is needed in strategic decision making. Of utmost importance here is the Supplier Relationship Management (SRM) and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) whereby business processes can be integrated real time (Attaran, 2007).  In terms of lean and agile supply chain tools, a collaborative approach between companies and supplies has been found to highly beneficial and that companies that exercise this approach usually outperform their competitors. In order to boost profitability and innovation as well as maintain a high quality supply chain in the procurement and sourcing processes, the adoption and full implementation of RFID technologies alongs ide other supply chain management tools such as Customer Premise Equipment (CPE) and Vendor Managed Inventory (VMI) cannot be ignored or underestimated. A Supplier Relationship Management System (SRM) when well utilized alongside RFID will enable the smooth process of tracking down spending analysis by suppliers on a global basis. This can be implemented across different product categories. Moreover, SRM will permit comparison of supplier metrics and benchmarks. In other words, it will be possible for the manufacturer to outsource the most viable supplier through real time record. In the case of lean supply chain, the lead-time compression will be monitored with ease so long as the RFID technological platform has been fully integrated in the business cycle. Contract Management (CM) when used together with RFID technology will enhance the sharing of vital information among suppliers alongside enabling the establishment of web-based procurement process that are fast and convenient to the users. Contact Management will also permit the continual monitoring of supply chain and most importantly ensuring that the performance of suppliers is up to date and according to the earlier proposed agreements. Spend Management software such as Ariba, Statistical Analysis System (SAS) and Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) to catch up with the implementation of RFID by most vendors in the supply chain. A case example is that of Xerox. The company ha s already installed and using the internet procurement system. The new system is intended to cut down on unnecessary costs associated with non-productive purchasing. Sincerely speaking, this is one way through which Xerox Corporation will be practicing lean manufacturing and hence lean supply chain paradigm (Heinrich, 2005). The net effect will be transformation of the supply chain system of the company from the one that is geared towards waste elimination to one that is consistent with an agile approach whereby efficiency will be improved significantly. In the long run, Xerox Corporation anticipates lowering down its expenditure on goods and services that have been deemed as less productive in the manufacturing and supply chain paradigm (Heinrich, 2005). The integration of SCM and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems alongside with RFID technology is also a vita practice in supply chain management since the latter may not be very fruitful its functionality is supported by other integral systems. Both the SCM and ERP play pertinent roles in shaping a vibrant supply chain. The main reason why the two tools were developed was to standardize and optimize internal SC processes (Attaran, 2007). This standardization mainly targeted the following supply chain domains namely distribution, production, procurement and finance. While the initial generation systems were largely sole-based and lacked a collaborative approach, the modern systems being used in supply chain management are open and component based as we ll as web enabled. As critical example is the application of modern ERP systems together with RFID technologies. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) has the potential of ensuring that data is centrally managed while at the same time facilitating the mobility of information from one point to another. This feature has enhanced consistency and visibility of data since it readily provides all information regarding customers, production needs, inventory, purchases as well as sales (Attaran, 2007). Conclusions In summing up, it is imperative to note that the lean paradigm demands the elimination of the unnecessary inputs that may not be directly proportional to the process of production. On the other hand, there is need to maintain a nimble approach to the agile paradigm. This is vital in supply chain management of this nature bearing in mind that the loss in sales can never be recovered. One outstanding difference between the two paradigms is that while level scheduling is more valued in lean supply, the reservation of capacity to be able to deal with unpredictable demand is a functionality of the agile paradigm. On the same note, it is worth to note that most supply chains are cyclic in nature and therefore prompting the concepts of market qualifiers and market winners. The two paradigms, though completely differentiated from each other, cannot be discussed in total isolation since companies which pursue lean approach in their supply chains still struggle to move towards an agile system while those undertaking the latter still require to minimize wastes in order to boost profitability and growth in revenue. Finally, the pursuit towards improving the management of supply chains has witnessed the adoption and implementation of RFID technology in tracking down supplies from the point of production to delivery to customers. Other supportive tools such as the internet, e-commerce, Decision Support Systems (DSS), Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Electronic Data Interc hange (EDI) and Customer Premise Equipment (CPE) have been integrated in the contemporary supply chain management. References Attaran, M. 2007. RFID: an enabler of supply chain operations. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 12(4): 249–257. Dell, M. Fedman, C.1999. Direct from Dell: Strategies that Revolutionised an Industry, London: Harper Collins. Heinrich, C.E. 2005. RFID and Beyond. Indianapolis: Wiley Sons. Naylor et al. 1999. Leagility: Integrating the lean and agile manufacturing paradigms in the total supply chain. International Journal of Production Economics, 62: 107- 118. Appendices An Agile versus lean supply chains for market qualifiers An agile supply chain based on information This report on Supply Chain Management and Modern Technologies was written and submitted by user Jaxon E. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Quebec Essays - French Quebecers, Lucien Bouchard, Free Essays

Quebec Essays - French Quebecers, Lucien Bouchard, Free Essays Quebec Maine doesn't see Quebec sovereignty as a threat ROCKPORT, Me. - Premier Lucien Bouchard got the message he wanted Thursday from two American politicians: Quebec's future is an internal matter and economic ties would be kept with their state if it leaves Canada. "The future of Quebec is essentially a Canadian matter," Maine Governor Angus King said at a news conference with Bouchard in Rockport, a community on the Atlantic Ocean. "It's not up to us to sit on the sidelines and suggest what the solution should be," King added. Bouchard was on a one-day tour of Maine to attend a business development conference to promote trade between the two struggling economies. King, whose motto is "Export or die' said putting people to work is his priority. "Jobs is really what it's all about." Mark Lawrence, president of the state's Senate, said Maine would keep economic ties with an independent Quebec. "We have a strong history with Quebec and whatever form of government Quebec chooses, we intend to maintain a strong relationship with Quebec," Lawrence said. Bouchard couldn't disagree, adding that the first rule of diplomacy is to stay clear of your neighbor's political problems. "No country would like to see other countries get involved in their internal business," the premier said. Bouchard didn't shy away from the sovereignty issue. He tried avoiding the matter last time he was in New England, saying it slipped his mind. He visited Boston last June and said questions about Quebec voting to leave Canada hadn't been raised. But Bouchard still preferred to dwell on the economic aspects of the Maine trip, saying it's important for the state and the province to strengthen their economic ties. Trade between them is worth about $207 million US annually. They aim to increase tourism and technology and possibly designate a heritage highway between Quebec and Maine. Bouchard said he hopes the trip boosts Quebec's international image and "doesn't hurt its reputation." King and Lawrence played up Maine's strong French cultural heritage. About 30 per cent of the state's population of more than one million have French roots. They left Quebec at the turn of the century to work in New England's textile mills. Maine, one of Quebec's closest U.S. neighbors, is also a popular tourist destination in the summer for Quebecers. Bouchard, who likes to visit Maine in the summer with his family, has struck up a friendship with King based on their passion for Thomas Jefferson, a father of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. King gave Bouchard a portrait of Jefferson. In turn, Bouchard gave King a book by Jefferson about the problems with debt, something Bouchard said his "foes in Quebec say I'm obsessed about." King, who didn't seem surprised to receive the book, said the exchange of Jefferson-related gifts was a coincidence. "We didn't plan this," he laughed.

Managing Human Resources Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Managing Human Resources - Coursework Example man resource management has changed its role from primarily administrative to a more influencing and facilitating position with an aim of adopting a commercial approach to HRM. Human Resources Management is business today is the hardest duty of a manager as coordination of capabilities of humans is central to the business’s achievement of the set goals. However, HR manager is faced with challenges as humans are constantly in conflict with their psychology, assumptions, aspirations and attitudes. HRM involves activities such as development strategies, employee training, coordination of employee benefits, performance management and recruiting and hiring employees (Tichy, Fombrum and Devanna, 1982). Although both human resource management and personal management are concepts involved with management of human labor in an organization, there are notable differences between the two concepts. Personal management is a traditional style while HRM is the new and modern version. Personal management is more inclined to focus on labor relations, employee welfare and personnel administration as opposed to motivation and sustainability and acquisition and development of human resources. During the 1990s when the concept of HRM took root in organizations, the two concepts were interchangeably used to mean the same things. However, social and economic development in the structure of organizations since 1990s have seen the evolution of HRM in order to cope with the needs of the ever changing business environment. Key areas of distinction between HRM and personal management can be examined in relation to leadership and management roles, contract of employment, job design and pay policy and the nature of relations. HRM has been described as a concept that takes two different forms; hard and soft HRM. The soft model is concerned with the humans and their self-direction with a view of emphasizing centrally on self- regulating behavior, trust and commitment. On the other hand, the

Marine Finance and Insurance - Coursework 3 Essay

Marine Finance and Insurance - Coursework 3 - Essay Example In this particular case, no tax rate is given. 7Capital investment appraisal or capital budgeting is primarily concerned with incremental cash flows therefore depreciation should be added back to arrive at the projected cash flow from operations, because there is no actual cash outflow for depreciation (Brigham, et al, 1999). 3The discounted cash flows are the resulting cash flows after applying the cost of capital which is 14% or , projected cash flow during the year/ (1.14)t, where t represents the time or nth year, 1 is constant, and .14 or 14% is Tower’s cost of capital. To illustrate: Discounted Cash Flow for the first year is computed as: 2,890,000.00/ (1.14)1. For the second year, it is, 6,370,000.00/ (1.14)2, and so on until the sixth year. We will use the discounted cash flows in calculating the discounted payback period and the profitability index or PI (Gapenski, et al, 1999). Regular Payback Method. This method of appraising investment tells the number of operating years needed to recover the initial investment or cash outlay. It is the number of years required until the accumulated cash inflows will equal to the amount of the initial investment. The exact payback period is computed using the formula: Payback = Year before full recovery + (Unrecovered Cost at the start of Year/Cash Flow during the Year). If the capital is recovered within the shortest possible time, then this is good for the company (Brigham et al 1999). If the payback period is less than the companys required payback period for the investment, the proposal is accepted, otherwise it is rejected. However, this method does not consider significant cash flows or profit after the payback period. Therefore, this could not be a sound basis for deciding on the profitability of the investment (Bucklery 1996). For Towers, it will take 3 years before full recovery of proposed investment, total accumulated inflows

Procedural Email Message Assignment Essay Example for Free

Procedural Email Message Assignment Essay

The Bill of Rights Essay -- American Government, Politics

The Bill of Rights is a list of limitations on the power of the government. Firstly, the Bill of Rights is successful in assuring the adoption of the Constitution. Secondly, the Bill of Rights did not address every foreseeable situation. Thirdly, the Bill of Rights has assured the safety of the people of the nation. Successes, failures, and consequences are what made the Bill of Rights what they are today. Firstly, the Bill of Rights has guaranteed the adoption of the Constitution. James Madison proposed the Bill of Rights to the First Federal Congress on June 8, 1789 (Primary Documents 1). The First Federal Congress then proposed the twelve amendments to the constitution to the state legislatures (Constitutional Politics in Ohio 1). The first two articles were not ratified. Articles three through twelve were ratified on December 15, 1791 (Constitutional Politics in Ohio 1). These became known as The Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights became the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution (Primary Documents 1). From the beginning, James Madison did not see a reason for there to be a Bill of Rights in the Constitution. But his decision soon changed. In 1787, delegates to the Philadelphia Convention debated whether to include a Bill of Rights in the Constitution (Schwartz 2). Since Thomas Jefferson could not attend the Philadelphia Convention, he sent Madison a letter. The en closed letter said that the omission of a Bill of Rights was a major mistake: "A bill of rights is what the people are entitled to against every government on earth" (Significance). After receiving the letter from Jefferson, Madison believed that there should be a bill of rights to the Constitution. Jefferson and Madison argued that a declaration of... ...The Eighth Amendment protects against "cruel and unusual punishments (Charters 2). This means a person would not get punished severely. The Tenth Amendment ensures that the individual rights that are not enumerated in the Constitution are secure -- that these rights should not be automatically infringed upon because they are omitted from the Constitution (Charters 2). This means that the powers delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. In conclusion, the Bill of Rights has assured the adoption of the Constitution. It has had some failures that did not end up in the Bill of Rights. It has also assured the safety of people. The Bill of Rights plays a key role in American Law and government, and remains a vital symbol of the freedoms and culture of the nation.

Modern Tragedy

This essay is a view on the tragedy and the common man, primarily circling around Death of a Salesman and All my Sons. It’s divided into three parts. First we’ll talk about Arthur Miller and his life and what could have motivated to write these plays, the second will be an analytical view of his plays. And the third part will give detailed idea on why it can be called a tragedy. The structure of tragedy has been altered time to time to suit the timeline of the society.The time when Arthur Miller writes the social scenario is rational and more psychoanalytical, hence the subject of the tragic hero also changes, from being a conventional tragic hero from a high status. Arthur Miller’s plays have a common man as the tragic hero. This paper will elaborate on the views of Arthur Miller and his idea of a tragic hero. We will keep in mind the timeline and the scenario of the society and the country of the time Miller wrote his plays to understand the idea behind the pla ys. Basic theme in both his plays Death of a Salesman and All my sons is related to the almighty illusion of American dream. The dream which plays a major role in downfall of both tragic figures, Willy Loman and Joe Keller.LIFE OF ARTHUR MILLERArthur Miller was born on October 17, 1915 in New York and died on February 10, 2005 in Connecticut, United States. He is a very well-known playwright and essayist; he got immensely popular during late 1940s to early 1960s. Arthur Miller’s family was a victim of the Economic fall, he belonged to a very wealthy family, his father owned a women’s clothing manufacturing company and had around 400 employees, they had all the wealth , a summer house etc. But because of the Market Crash they lost almost everything and Miller had to deliver bread before attending school in order to help his family, and had to do several menial jobs to pay up for his college tuition fees.What is a tragedy?According to the dictionary tragedy is â€Å"A p lay dealing with tragic events and having an unhappy ending, especially one concerning the downfall of the main character.† Tragedy is basically the downfall of the hero, for the actions  he has taken in the past, or some fallacy in him, causing him his misfortune. According to Aristotle in poetics;â€Å"Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action of high importance, complete and of some ampli ­tude; in language enhanced by distinct and varying beauties; acted not narrated; by means of pity and fear effectuating its purgation of these emotions.† However, the definition of tragic hero has changed from the Ancients and the Elizabethan times to now. Both these times[ Elizabethan and the Greeks] potrays the tragic hero as a man of rank and high stature, a king or a noble man, on whom the entire nation depended, but in modern times the hero of the tragic fall especially in Miller plays is the common man, under the pressure of society, illusions, and liar to himself and t he society.The notable differences between the three timeline is that the ancients had a religious aspect playing a major role in it, and the fate of the gods did matter a lot, the Elizabethan or especially Shakespearean tragedies were self-inflicted, because of the tragic hero’s one quality that makes him powerful and weak. Modern times the tragedy surely is self-inflicted, but it is more society oriented, and man thinking in term of keeping his status in the society. The hero in both Greeks and Elizabethan period are the same, coming from high ranks, but the in the modern tragedy it has drastically changed, portraying the hero from a common class.I am only keeping Arthur Miller in picture and not everyone in the modern times to justify the characteristics of the tragic hero as the common man. Ultimately tragedy what in general is that which depicts the down fall of the protagonist after a lengthy suffering of him, provoking the emotions of pity and fear in the audience. Art hur Miller’s idea of tragedyIn Arthur Miller's essay, â€Å"Tragedy and the Common Man,† he outlines his ideas on what a tragedy and tragic hero are today. He says that the tragic hero does not have to be a king or of a noble background, but instead, the common man can be considered a tragic hero. Miller makes the point that the tragic flaw is the idea that the tragic hero is unable to accept anything that may affect their status or self-image. Miller also states that tragedy is not supposed to be pessimistic, but rather an optimistic display of human qualities. â€Å"I believe that the common man is as apt a subject for tragedy in its highest sense as kings were.†-Arthur Miller â€Å"Tragedy and the Common Man†In his first argument, Miller states that the tragic hero does not need to be royal or noble, for the common man can fit the role as aptly. Miller explains that this is now obvious through the concepts such as the Oedipus complex, which were origin ally â€Å"enacted by royal beings, but which apply to everyone in similar situations†. He believes that if tragedy were to only apply to kings, then it would be impossible for everyone else to cherish and comprehend it.The most crucial characteristic of a tragic hero according to Arthur Miller is that of the character possessing a sense of personal dignity. This is his notion of having a tragic hero not from high stature or rank. He is modifying the characteristics of tragic hero from the ones in Ancients and Elizabethans. â€Å"I think the tragic feeling is invoked in us when we are in the presence of a character who is ready to lay down his life, if need be, to secure one thing — his sense of personal dignity.†-Arthur Miller, â€Å"Tragedy and the Common Man†Arthur Miller believes that if tragedy were to only apply to kings, then it would be impossible for everyone else to comprehend with it. The only quality needed for a character to be a tragic hero, according to Miller, is the readiness to â€Å"lay down his life, if need be, to secure one thing-his sense of personal dignity† This concept of the average man being a tragic hero is evident in The Crucible, through John Proctor, a local farmer.The play is about witchcraft practices in a small town, and towards the end John Proctor gets trapped in the wrong accusation that he forced his maid to sign the devil’s book. In the end of The Crucible, Proctor is supposed to sign a confession which will be put on Church notice board, but he refuses that because he doesn’t want to be in that position because it is not true; that is how Proctor's sense of personal dignity is conveyed when he tears his confession in order to preserve his good name, even at the cost of his life.According to Miller there is not anything like tragic flaw in particular, it is but â€Å"his inherent unwillingness to remain passive in the face of what he conceives to be a challenge to his dig nity, his image of the rightful status.† Meaning the tragic fall is occurred because, it comes to gaining his rightful social status. The common man, like in All my Sons, Joe Keller is lying to himself and to the society about his involvement in the faulty plane parts so that he can his rightful position of being a businessman back in the society. He elaborates on this point by saying, â€Å"The quality in such plays that does shake us, however derives from the underlying fear of being displaced, the disaster inherent in being torn away from our chosen image of what and who we are in this world. Among us today this fear is strong, and perhaps stronger, than it ever was. In fact, it is the common man who knows this fear.†Though the tragic hero commonly receives punishment for his or her way of being, Miller finds the connection between tragedy and pessimism to be a misconception. According to Miller, tragedy promotes â€Å"a condition of life, a condition which the huma n personality is able to flower and realize itself,† and therefore does not correctly associate with pessimism. Because according to Miller Tragedies do not promote pessimism but it strengths the viewpoints of the spectator towards the human. â€Å" There is a misconception of tragedy with which I have been struck in review after review, and in many conversations with writers and readers alike. It is the idea that tragedy is of necessity allied to pessimism.Even the dictionary says nothing more about the word than that it means a story with a sad or unhappy ending. This impression is so firmly fixed that I almost hesitate to claim that in truth tragedy implies more optimism in its author than does comedy, and that its final result ought to be the reinforcement of the onlooker's brightest opinions of the human animal.†-Arthur Miller, â€Å"Tragedy and the Common Man†Miller has written plays which have a social context to it, because he was influenced by Henrik Ibs en. In All My Sons he uses the similar style of bringing the past into present, the action taken in the past become the consequences of the present. The action of no facing the lawsuit and ship the engines resulting something grave in the present. Likewise, incepting the idea of success with well-liked also results into a present failure. But these consequences which end in a tragedy is not pessimistic because it corrects the general audience to some extent. G.B Shaw’s plays although not tragedy did show the audience the contemporary scenario of his time reflecting the society. Likewise Arthur Miller shows the audience the present scene of society, blindly believing in American dream, and sense of personal dignity are some factors of it.Keeping in mind the two famous plays by Miller All My Sons [1947] Death of a Salesman [1949]; we will see how Arthur Miller has portrayed his tragic hero as an average man.Analysis on Death of a SalesmanIn Death of a Salesman Willy Loman is tr ying to achieve American dream blindly without believing in hard work and associating the success with being well liked, to some extent that is his flaw or Hamartia. I am using this term just to make the concept more straight forward, as we learnt that Miller doesn’t believe in tragic flaw. However trying to achieve the illusion of America Dream is what Willy Loman wants because that is what he wants his social image to be, to be a well-liked businessman. He fails to do so because of his misinterpreting the dream into being well-liked.Even though this play does follow most of Aristotle’s tragic conventions which are the unity of time, place and action; o bloodshed on the stage; instead of chorus use of music, action beginning from the middle; it fails to justify Willy as the classical tragic hero because even towards the end he doesn’t realize that this was the flaw [the will to attain the dream]. It was just a misconception. He does not realize that and commits suicide so that his son Biff gets Willy’s insurance money. And the social status varies in ancients and modern tragedies. Willy Loman can therefore be called a Modern Hero not the classic. Language and Style:-In Death of a Salesman because it is a box play with the possibility of props it didn’t have chorus to constantly comment on the play but the play uses the help of music and lights to highlight the past and present phase so that  the audience doesn’t get lost. The play also starts from the middle and we are made aware of the story with the use of past and present, due to the technological revolution since the Greek times, the play has a lot of symbolism using the stage props hence it is very much the visual connection which the audience can make rather than depending on simile and metaphors. For example in Death of a Salesman at the end of Act I, a magnificent contrast has been given in the speech and the light adjustment where Willy is talking about the greatness of Biff in football when he was young and Biff is standing in the darkened kitchen corner.Analysis on â€Å"All my Sons†In Miller’s other play All My Sons the tragic hero is Joe Keller, his downfall is caused because of his narrow point of view which is always about being rich and about his family, and to live up to the fact that he is living an American dream. All My Sons shows us images of the American dream and it really happens as Joe belongs to the lower class of society, rises up and achieves all the luxuries for him and his family. But his narrow minded thought process leads him to ship damaged aircraft engine cylinder heads so that he does not run out of business.Besides shipping off the parts, he does not accept the responsibility in the courtroom, making the excuse that he was ill the day it was shipped off and the blame goes to his partner Steve Deever. Well this can be connected to the scenario of Miller’s age when after the World War II d uring Nuremberg trials, the Nazi who were accused of certain charges were executed. Some of them committed suicides, other people did go through the trials and face the execution. Because of Keller’s decision of shipping faulty aircraft parts his son Larry Keller feels absolutely disgusted with him and we know of that at the very end of the play, and that is where the reversal of action comes.Because till now Larry Keller is not shown to the audience and Joe doesn’t know about his death, he is trying to escape the reality and go back to the normal life. But in the end when he hears the letter out from his other son Chris Keller, Joe is completely shattered and takes the blame on himself and kills himself. The letter was written to Ann Deever, who was supposed to marry Larry.   Larry in this letter states that he is extremely disgusted by his  father’s deed, and because of his father he can not face anyone, and he is going on a mission from which he is never going to come back. We some to a conclusion that Larry committed suicide, because he could not face what his father did to the military for his own benefit.Language and StyleThis particular play does not take us back and forth in past and present like death of a Salesman does, but it reveals the events occurred in the past through conversation, like Henrik Ibsen does, in A Doll’s House which is the story of Nora and Torvald Helmer. The language in this play is very straightforward making it sound natural. And the action takes place in a backyard of a house, which is symbol in itself. The play is about the ugly truth that lies behind the American dream. A backyard can be significant in one of two ways.One, it could imply the â€Å"backdoor† idea, which is selfish and ethically wrong ideas. It could also mean backyard being one of the center of American families and a happy place, but where all the ugly truths come out and where the perfectly happy, normal living the Ame rican Dream family crumbles and experiences downfall. This play is about the betrayal, about American families, about guilt, about denial, about money, about needs, about egotism, about father and son relationship.According to the Ancients and the Elizabethan playwrights the protagonist is always of a high position or stature i.e. king, prince or an important person from the army, Miller excluded this notion from his plays by making the average man the protagonist. We will call this average man the common man- someone who is like us, who has a regular life and whose tragic fall is not going to affect the whole nation.Arthur Miller has highlighted American dream in both these plays and has also successfully made it the cause of tragedy. Both these plays have followed many tragic conventions making them tragic plays even after changing the idea of having a tragic hero belonging to the noble family yet invoking the particular set of emotions in the audience.What is American Dream?I wou ld like to highlight the major idea in Miller’s plays, the action of these two plays are based on the American Dream. The well-known definition of American dream is ‘The traditional social ideals of the United States, such as equality, democracy, and material prosperity.’ But this idea is deeply rooted in the American history. â€Å"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed;† -Thomas Jefferson, United States Declaration of Independence [1776]â€Å"The American Dream is that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement. It is a difficult dream for the European upper c lasses to interpret adequately, and too many of us ourselves have grown weary and mistrustful of it. It is not a dream of motor cars and high wages merely, but a dream of social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are, regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position.† – James Truslow Adams, The Epic of America [1931]In The Epic of America James Truslow Adams Coined this term called ‘American Dream’. He says that the American Dream is not about the motor cars and high wages, the dream is about the social order, that everyone can achieve the maximum of what they are capable of, and people will recognize them for it. It does not matter how fortunate they were when they were born. Well but these definition has resulted in having a dream of materialistic values. Even widely pictures depicting American dream shows the lux urious objects in it like a car, a big house, two children and a dog and so on. Well the pictures only show white families in it, so American dream is also misinterpreted as having a white family with all the luxurious amenities. So there has been an idea of how American dream looks like, but even California Gold rush in 1849 has contributed to the modern definition.â€Å"The Ð ¾ld American Dream †¦ was the dream of the Puritans, of Benjamin Franklin's â€Å"Poor Richard†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ of men and women content to accumulate their modest fortunes a little at a time, year by year by year. The new dream was the dream of instant wealth, won in a twinkling by audacity and good luck. This golden dream †¦ became a prominent part of the American psyche only after Sutter's Mill.† -W.H BrandsMost people know about the Sutter’s Mill, as it was one of the foremost mills to dig out gold. Sutter's Mill was a sawmill owned by 19th-century pioneer John Sutter in partnership with James W. Marshall. It was located in Coloma, California, at the bank of the South Fork American River. Sutter's Mill is most famous for its association with the California Gold Rush. On January 24, 1848, Marshall found several flakes of gold that began the transformation of California from a sleepy outpost to a bustling center of activity. Sutter tried to keep the discovery secret, but eventually the word got out. During the next seven years, approximately 300,000 people came to California (half by land and half by sea) to seek their fortunes mining for gold or selling supplies like picks and shovels to the gold prospectors.The idea can be applied to Willy Loman’s older brother Ben from Death of a Salesman. As he goes to the forest of Africa and finds diamonds there, because of his hard work and he was lucky. Looking at these definitions now we might have an idea of images associated to the American dream, these ideas were converted to the will of possessing good wealth and good family. But this American dream fell flat on its face during the Great Depression.Because after the economic fall people started to disbelieve in the America Dream of ‘anyone’ can reach the top. And this was when Arthur Miller had hardships in his life. Hence he tries to criticize this illusionary concept of the American dream in Death of a Salesman as well as in All My Sons. This dream was largely held by common men, because the images of this dream showed him there, hence every average man wanted to attain this dream that is what was performed in Miller’s play Death of a Salesman. And Joe Keller achieves it in All my sons.ConclusionRaymond Williams in his Modern Tragedy had come up with a concept of tragedy and social disorder. In this he talks about revolution, revolution which is in general violent but it is to reshape the conditions, and it is honored and justified; but only successful revolution becomes epic. When the revolution is in progress it is chaotic and tragic. Hence it is not an epic in time of its progress but it is tragic. If we apply this theory of revolution in the society and the tragic effects to it, we can makes sense out of Arthur Miller’s both the characters i.e. Willy Loman and Joe Keller, as these characters are present in the time of capitalism, depending on the new world’s economy.Now I being from the post-modern world can see this revolution of economic change as an epic; but keeping in mind the Arthur Miller’s timeline and the characters based on the same timeline, it is tragic. Seeing revolution as the powerhouse of chaos they are tragic heroes, but seeing the change as an epic they are revolutionary heroes. But this idea of seeing them as revolutionary heroes can only happen now, because we see from a different age. Maybe Miller chooses the tragic hero as a common man because the time when he wrote the concept of royal people and their tragedy was out of fashion.Because Arthur M iller was an American playwright and because America has functioned in a democratic way, so there is not only one person at the highest and there is no monarchy. And the people of New England had started thinking rationally, even the literature of that era had begun to talk about psychoanalysis and sociology and the audience had become more literate because of the printing press and the daily newspaper service, and also because of the explosion of novel writers and readers. People started to have a voice of their own and a thought process of their own because America was a democratic country, they might have not wanted the tragic hero of a high stature but a tragic hero that they could connect to.The age had seen the sudden economic twist, like a tragic story, one day you know that there is The Great Gatsby like scenario with the economic boom and the parties and richness and happiness and the very next day you know people jumping off the building due to stock market crash. Maybe th is could have made Arthur Miller to write about the current tragic hero which is common man. Ultimately his experiment did achieve the success, as the audience did appreciate seeing common man as the tragic hero.